Machu Picchu Science Travel Guide: Uncover Geology, Astronomy, and Incan History

Explore the awe-inspiring wonder of Machu Picchu through this Machu Picchu science travel guide, uncovering its rich Incan history, stunning geology, and advanced astronomical alignments. Learn about the citadel’s construction, its significance to Incan culture, and how to plan your visit to this UNESCO World Heritage site. Discover travel tips, insights into the site’s geological foundations, and its deep connection to Incan cosmology, all from a science-focused perspective. Perfect for history enthusiasts, adventure travelers, and those curious about ancient civilizations.

Introduction: A Journey to Machu Picchu, One of the World’s Wonders

For those with a passion for adventure, science, and history, Machu Picchu stands as the ultimate destination. Perched high in the Andes Mountains, this ancient Inca citadel not only offers breathtaking views but also holds profound historical, geological, and astronomical significance. Recognized as one of the world’s most iconic archaeological sites, Machu Picchu is far more than a historical treasure – it’s a geological marvel and a testament to the Incas’ advanced understanding of astronomy. My visit in December was awe-inspiring from the moment I set foot in Peru. I hope that through my journey, this story serves as a comprehensive Machu Picchu science travel guide, inspiring your own adventure to this remarkable fusion of history and science.

The History of Machu Picchu: Inca Royalty and Rediscovery

Machu Picchu was built around 1450 during the reign of Inca emperor Pachacuti. It likely served as a royal retreat, religious center, and site for agricultural experimentation. Hidden from the outside world until 1911, when Hiram Bingham rediscovered it, Machu Picchu remains one of the best-preserved relics of Inca civilization.

Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983, Machu Picchu draws over a million visitors each year. However, concerns over preservation have led to conservation efforts to limit daily entries and protect the site for future generations.

A paraglider soars in the clear sky above the ocean, gliding gracefully over the cliffs in the Miraflores area of Lima, with the Pacific Ocean stretching out below. — A paraglider sails high over the Pacific coastline in Lima’s Miraflores district, offering breathtaking views of the ocean and rugged cliffs.

Starting in Lima: A Taste of Peruvian Culture

I began my journey in Lima, the vibrant capital city of Peru, spending a couple of days exploring its rich culture and coastal beauty. Walking along the Miraflores boardwalk, I was treated to sweeping views of the Pacific Ocean and the rugged cliffs below. As I strolled, locals carried on with their daily routines—jogging, cycling, and paragliding. Watching the paragliders soar gracefully above the cliffs, riding the thermals over the ocean, was an awe-inspiring sight.

While I didn’t try the famous ceviche, I did enjoy some mouthwatering pollo a la brasa (Peruvian roasted chicken). The flavors were incredible—juicy, marinated chicken slow-roasted to perfection and served with crispy fries and tangy sauces. I also sampled chupe de camarones (shrimp stew) in one of Lima’s bustling markets, which was equally delicious. As I visited just days before Christmas, the city was alive with holiday decorations and festive energy, with streets bustling with shoppers.

A view from a plane's window showing the wing and the Andes Mountains below, with snow-capped peaks rising above the clouds as the plane flies from Lima to Cusco. — Flying over the majestic Andes Mountains on the way to Cusco, with snow-capped peaks visible from the plane’s window. The breathtaking scenery sets the tone for the adventure to Machu Picchu.

Flying to Cusco: The Heart of the Inca Empire

After a few days in Lima, I took a 1-hour and 19-minute flight on Avianca Airlines to Cusco, the former capital of the Inca Empire and my launching point for visiting Machu Picchu. The flight itself was breathtaking, with stunning views of the Peruvian countryside and the towering Andes Mountains. As we approached Cusco, the anticipation grew—soon, I would be standing at one of the world’s most iconic archaeological sites, high in the Andes. Descending into Cusco, we passed through a narrow valley flanked by majestic peaks, with panoramic views of patchwork farmlands and small villages nestled between the mountains. For anyone who loves air travel, this approach offers an incredible introduction to the Andes.

Upon arriving at Cusco airport, one detail immediately stood out: a bowl of coca leaves offered to visitors. This traditional remedy is widely used to alleviate symptoms of altitude sickness, a common challenge for travelers arriving at Cusco’s high elevation. Visitors chew the coca leaves or brew them into tea. Though the leaves are the source of cocaine, in their natural form, they are completely harmless and provide an effective, natural way to combat altitude sickness. For me, the effects of altitude sickness started off mild—a slight headache, light-headedness, and a bit of effort required to walk the streets of Cusco. However, after my adventure to Machu Picchu, things worsened. By the third day, I was very sick and bedridden. Fortunately, by the fourth day, I began to feel better and was able to continue my journey to Bolivia, though even walking uphill left me short of breath. Altitude sickness affects everyone differently, but it’s something to plan for, as it can significantly impact your trip.

View of Cusco from a hotel room, showing the city's red-tiled rooftops with houses rising up the steep hills in the distance. — A breathtaking view of Cusco from my hotel, with houses climbing the steep hillsides. The city wraps around the mountains, creating a stunning landscape of red-tiled roofs and narrow streets.

After landing, I checked into a hotel in downtown Cusco. My room had an amazing view of the red-tiled rooftops stretching up the mountainsides, offering a picturesque scene of the city wrapping around the surrounding peaks. It was the perfect base for exploring Cusco’s rich history and culture, as well as a convenient spot for my day trip to Machu Picchu.

I chose to stay in Cusco because of its cultural significance and as a place to acclimate to the altitude. Although many visitors opt for the famous Inca Trail, a multi-day hike that spans 42 kilometers (26 miles), I decided to take the train and visit Machu Picchu in a single day to fit my schedule. While the Inca Trail is a renowned adventure, a day trip suited my plans perfectly, and Cusco served as an ideal base.

Exploring Cusco, with its valley setting and steep streets climbing the surrounding mountains, was a memorable experience. I visited the impressive Cusco Cathedral and indulged in some local treats like cactus fruit ice cream from a street-side café. The slightly tart flavor of the cactus fruit was refreshing and unique, adding to the charm of this ancient city.

View of steep hills and river from the train traveling from Cusco to Machu Picchu, with blue sky visible through clouds. — The stunning Peruvian countryside as seen from the train en route to Machu Picchu. Steep hills rise dramatically from the river below, with the blue sky peeking through the clouds, creating a breathtaking view along the journey.

Arriving in Aguas Calientes: The Gateway to Machu Picchu

After an early morning departure from Cusco, I boarded the PeruRail Expedition train at Poroy Station at 6:40 a.m. The train journey to Aguas Calientes, the base town for Machu Picchu, was an unforgettable part of the adventure. With its glass roof, the train offered panoramic views of the Andes Mountains as we wound through valleys and followed the Urubamba River. The breathtaking scenery, with rugged peaks rising sharply around us, made it feel as though the mountains were embracing the train. Although the journey lasted about three hours, the stunning landscapes made the time fly by.

At around 10 a.m., I arrived in Aguas Calientes, a small, picturesque town nestled in a deep valley at the base of Machu Picchu. Surrounded by towering peaks, the town is split by the Rio Aguas Calientes, adding to its serene beauty. After exploring the town and taking in the majestic surroundings, I caught a bus from the town center that zigzagged up the narrow, switchback road to Machu Picchu. The 40-minute ride was exhilarating, with steep cliffs on either side and incredible views of the valley below.

Wide shot of Machu Picchu from above, showing the entire citadel surrounded by steep mountains with clouds obscuring their peaks. — A breathtaking view of the ancient Inca citadel of Machu Picchu, perched high in the Andes. The steep mountains surrounding the site loom in the distance, with clouds drifting over their peaks, adding to the mystical atmosphere of this world wonder.

The Journey to Machu Picchu: A Spectacular Ascent

I arrived at Machu Picchu around noon, and from the moment I stepped inside the Citadel, I was in awe of how high the structures sit above the Urubamba River. Perched on a mountain ridge at an elevation of approximately 2,430 meters (7,970 feet) above sea level, Machu Picchu offers breathtaking views of the river winding through the steep valleys below. This river, part of the Amazon River Basin, eventually flows into the Amazon River and onward to the Atlantic Ocean. Standing above one of the many sources of the Amazon, I felt the immense reach of this vital water system, adding to the wonder of the site.

Machu Picchu experiences a subtropical highland climate, with distinct wet and dry seasons. The dry season, from April to October, offers clearer skies and is generally the best time to visit. Daytime temperatures range between 10°C (50°F) and 21°C (70°F), but nights can be much cooler. The wet season, from November to March, brings heavier rainfall, especially in January and February. Even during the dry season, mist and occasional showers can occur due to the high elevation.

During my visit, the weather was a mix of clouds and mist, adding a mystical atmosphere to the already breathtaking views. Upon arrival, the mountaintops were partially obscured by low clouds, creating a sense of mystery. The swirling mist around the structures gave everything an otherworldly feel. I spent about two to three hours exploring the site, climbing the stone staircases and walking through the Inca terraces. Visitors are typically allowed up to four hours at the Citadel, and while I didn’t stay the full time, I made the most of my visit. Toward the end, it started to rain lightly, but I had already absorbed the magic of the Citadel, and the shifting weather only enhanced the dreamlike quality of the experience.

Close-up of Machu Picchu's curved terraces with a misty mountain peak obscured by clouds in the distance. — A closer look at the iconic terraces of Machu Picchu. These curved steps, once used for agriculture, showcase the ingenuity of Inca engineering. In the distance, a steep mountain peak is partially hidden by clouds and mist, adding to the mystical atmosphere of this ancient site.

As I wandered through the terraces, I was excited to spot a llama for the first time. These iconic Peruvian animals roam freely around Machu Picchu, adding to the charm and authenticity of the site. Seeing the llamas grazing on the terraces, with the mist-covered mountains in the background, was a special highlight of my visit.

“Standing above one of the many sources of the Amazon, I felt the immense reach of this vital water system, adding to the wonder of the site.”

The Citadel itself was constructed from white-gray granite, a durable stone sourced locally from the surrounding hills that form the Vilcabamba Batholith. This granite was formed millions of years ago during the Cenozoic era (roughly 65 to 2 million years ago) as a result of intense geological activity. The collision of the Nazca Plate and the South American Plate caused the rise of the Andes Mountains, and over time, erosion and tectonic movements exposed the granite, which the Incas used to build Machu Picchu.

I was particularly struck by the fact that the Citadel was built on granite, which resonated with me personally as my hometown of St. George, New Brunswick, in eastern Canada, is known for its rich history of red granite mining. Growing up around granite, I’ve always admired its strength and beauty. Learning about the geological history of the Andes and how the Incas harnessed this stone for their construction only deepened my appreciation for their craftsmanship and connection to the natural world.

A llama eating grass along a stone walkway at Machu Picchu. — A llama peacefully grazes along one of Machu Picchu’s ancient stone walkways. These gentle animals roam freely around the site, adding a touch of life to the centuries-old ruins.

The sharp peaks of the Andes Mountains surrounding Machu Picchu are a direct result of these powerful geological forces. It’s awe-inspiring to think about the millions of years it took to shape this landscape, adding another layer of appreciation for the skill and effort the Incas invested in constructing this monumental city atop such rugged terrain.

While exploring the site, I also learned more about how the Incas used astronomy. They carefully aligned Machu Picchu’s buildings and structures with celestial events like the solstices and the movement of the stars. The Incas had a profound connection with the cosmos, and Machu Picchu is a prime example of how they integrated astronomy into their architecture. For instance, certain windows are aligned to capture sunlight during the summer solstice, and the Intihuatana stone is believed to have served as an astronomical tool, marking the position of the sun throughout the year. This sophisticated alignment reflects the Incas’ spiritual and astronomical beliefs, and their ability to fuse architecture with cosmic observation.

People relaxing in greenish hot spring pools at Baños Termales with steep, lush mountains in the background. — Visitors unwind in the Baños Termales hot springs after a long day of exploring Machu Picchu. The soothing greenish waters provide relief while the surrounding steep, vegetation-covered mountains create a stunning backdrop, making it a serene and unforgettable experience.

Baños Termales: Soothing the Soreness After Machu Picchu

After an unforgettable day exploring Machu Picchu, I returned to Aguas Calientes and sought out some relaxation at the Baños Termales, the local hot springs. Arriving around 5 p.m., I spent an hour soaking in the warm, mineral-rich waters. Though the water had a slightly greenish hue, it felt incredibly refreshing after a long day of hiking. The true highlight was the serene atmosphere, surrounded by the towering peaks of the Andes, which created a peaceful and almost surreal setting.

These natural hot springs owe their warmth to the region’s unique geological activity. Nestled in the geothermally active Andes Mountains, the springs are heated by volcanic forces deep underground. Water seeps through cracks in the Earth’s crust, heats up as it encounters hot rocks, and rises back to the surface, enriched with minerals like sulfur, which gives the water its distinctive color. Beyond being a relaxing retreat, the Baños Termales offer a glimpse into the geothermal forces at work in the region, making it both a soothing and geologically fascinating experience.

The Journey Back to Cusco: A Reflective Ride Through the Andes

After a soothing soak in the hot springs of Baños Termales and a final stroll around the charming streets of Aguas Calientes, I boarded the 6:20 p.m. PeruRail train for the return journey to Cusco. As I settled into my seat, exhaustion from the day began to set in. While I felt the effects of altitude sickness more strongly during the train ride, nothing could dampen the elation I felt from having completed my journey to the awe-inspiring Machu Picchu.

The train ride to Ollantaytambo, which took about two hours, was a quiet reflection of the adventure I had just experienced. When I arrived in Ollantaytambo, I found a taxi just outside the station for the final leg of the journey to Cusco. This two-hour drive through the dark Andean landscape was nothing short of mesmerizing. I gazed out the window, captivated by the blanket of stars overhead. The clear sky revealed an astonishing view of the night, and I couldn’t help but think that the same stars had watched over the Inca people centuries ago, guiding them in their mighty empire.

The following day was meant for exploring Cusco, but I found myself nursing the effects of altitude sickness and spent most of it in bed. Despite this, I was content, knowing that I had just experienced the adventure of a lifetime. With my spirits still high, I looked forward to my next destination—La Paz, Bolivia, eager to continue my journey of discovery.

The author, Don Trynor, kneeling beside a llama, showing a peace sign above the llama's head at the Machu Picchu citadel." — The author sharing a playful moment with a llama at the Machu Picchu citadel, symbolizing the harmony between nature and history at this iconic site.

Reflections on Machu Picchu: A Journey Through Time and Nature

Leaving Machu Picchu left a profound impression on me. Standing among the ancient Inca stone structures, surrounded by towering Andes peaks and the flowing Urubamba River, I came to realize that Machu Picchu is much more than a historical site. It is a living testament to humanity’s deep connection with nature, the Earth, and the cosmos. Witnessing this incredible Inca wonder firsthand, I felt fortunate to experience one of the world’s greatest examples of how human civilization can harmonize with its natural surroundings.

Practical Tips for Visiting Machu Picchu

General Travel Safety Tips

Protect your belongings: Be mindful of your wallet, passport, and valuables while exploring. Keep your passport in your hotel’s safe, and carry only a photocopy with you. When walking around, watch your bags and avoid carrying large amounts of cash.
Be cautious in crowded areas: Markets and public transportation can be hotspots for pickpockets. Keep your belongings close and secure.
Avoid walking alone at night: Stick to well-lit streets in unfamiliar or less tourist-friendly areas, and avoid walking alone at night.
Use trusted transportation: Choose registered taxis or ride-sharing services instead of hailing cabs from the street.
Water safety: It’s best to avoid drinking tap water in Peru. Stick to bottled water for drinking, brushing your teeth, and other daily needs to stay safe.

Machu Picchu-Specific Tips

Sunscreen and sunglasses: Even on cloudy days, UV rays can be strong at high altitudes. Protect your skin and eyes with sunscreen and sunglasses.
A hat: If you’re prone to sunburn, a hat is essential for protection, especially under the intense sun at this altitude.
An umbrella or raincoat: The weather at Machu Picchu can be unpredictable, especially during the winter months. Even if the day starts clear, sudden rain showers are common, so it’s a good idea to carry a compact umbrella or lightweight raincoat to stay dry during your visit.
Pain relievers: Pack acetaminophen, ibuprofen, or Advil for headaches or muscle soreness, especially if altitude affects you.
Altitude sickness medication: Consider bringing acetazolamide or similar medication if you’re concerned about altitude sickness.
Good shoes: Sturdy shoes with a good grip are essential for navigating Machu Picchu’s uneven terrain and steep stairs.
Pack water and food: Bring water and a light snack, as food options inside the Citadel are limited.
Bathroom facilities: Bathrooms are located outside the entrance, so use them before entering. Once inside, you cannot exit and re-enter. Keep small bills of Peruvian Soles for the bathroom fee.
Food restrictions: No food or large backpacks are allowed inside Machu Picchu. If you carry a snack, eat it before or after your visit, and leave large bags behind.
Stay on designated trails: Resist the temptation to wander off. Staying on the marked trails helps preserve the site and ensures your safety.

How to Get to Machu Picchu: A Complete Transportation Guide

Getting from Lima to Cusco

Most travelers start their journey to Machu Picchu by flying from Lima to Cusco. Direct flights are the fastest and most convenient option.

Transportation Method: Flights are available from Jorge Chávez International Airport in Lima to Alejandro Velasco Astete International Airport in Cusco. Airlines like LATAM, Avianca, and Sky Airline operate daily flights.
Duration of Travel: The flight duration is approximately 1 hour 20 minutes.
Costs: Flights typically range from $40 to $150 USD, depending on the season and how far in advance you book.
Schedule: Flights operate multiple times a day, with the earliest flights departing around 5:00 AM and the last flights departing around 10:00 PM.
How to Purchase Tickets: You can book flights directly through airline websites such as LATAM, Avianca, or use flight aggregators like Skyscanneror Google Flights.

Getting from Cusco to Aguas Calientes

Once you arrive in Cusco, your next stop is Aguas Calientes, the gateway town to Machu Picchu. There are a few ways to make this journey, but the train is the most popular and scenic.

Transportation Methods: The most common way to travel from Cusco to Aguas Calientes is by train. Two main companies operate the train services—PeruRail and Inca Rail.
Train Duration: The train journey takes approximately 3 to 4 hours. Trains depart from either Poroy Station (closer to Cusco) or Ollantaytambo Station (further down the Sacred Valley, a 1.5-hour drive from Cusco).
Costs: Prices range from $60 to $300 USD depending on the class of service and time of year. There are several options available, from budget trains to luxurious scenic trains.
Schedule: Trains run several times a day, with early morning departures around 6:00 AM and afternoon options for those who wish to spend time in the Sacred Valley before continuing to Aguas Calientes.
How to Purchase Tickets: You can purchase tickets online from PeruRail or Inca Rail. It’s recommended to book in advance, especially during peak tourist seasons.
Alternative Options: For those on a budget or seeking adventure, there are also bus and hiking routes (like the Inca Jungle Trail), which take longer but offer a more immersive experience.

Getting from Aguas Calientes to Machu Picchu

Once in Aguas Calientes, you’re just a short ride away from the entrance to Machu Picchu itself.

Transportation Method: The most common way to reach Machu Picchu from Aguas Calientes is by taking the bus that shuttles visitors up the mountain to the entrance of the site. Alternatively, adventurous travelers can opt for a steep hike up the mountain, which takes about 1 to 2 hours, but the bus is the fastest and most popular option.
Bus Duration: The bus ride takes approximately 25–30 minutes and follows a winding series of switchbacks up the mountain.
Costs: The round-trip bus fare is about $24 USD for adults, and a one-way ticket costs around $12 USD. It’s advisable to have Peruvian Soles (PEN) on hand if you’re purchasing tickets at the bus station in Aguas Calientes, although some services may accept USD or allow you to pay by card.
Where to Catch the Bus: Buses depart from Avenida Hermanos Ayar, the main bus stop in the center of Aguas Calientes. This is within walking distance of most hotels and hostels in the small town, making it easy to access.
Schedule and When to Catch the Bus: Buses begin operating at 5:30 AM and run every 10 to 15 minutes throughout the day, with the last buses leaving around 5:30 PM.
- For Early Visits: If you have an early entry ticket or want to see the sunrise over Machu Picchu, it’s recommended to line up for the bus by 4:30 AM to 5:00 AM. This is the best way to get ahead of the crowds and enjoy a quieter, more peaceful experience.
- For Later Visits: If you plan to visit later in the day, buses still run frequently, so you can adjust your schedule accordingly.
How to Purchase Tickets: You can purchase bus tickets at the ticket office in Aguas Calientes, located near the bus departure point on Avenida Hermanos Ayar. Tickets can also be bought online through the official Consettur website.
- While some payment options accept USD, it’s best to carry Peruvian Soles (PEN) when buying tickets in person. Online platforms and tour agencies may allow payments in USD via credit cards, but in-person transactions are smoother with local currency.
Alternative Option: If you prefer to hike instead of taking the bus, the hike up to Machu Picchu takes about 1 to 2 hours, depending on your fitness level. This trail is steep and challenging but offers beautiful views of the surrounding mountains and valley. It’s ideal for those seeking an adventure and wanting to experience Machu Picchu’s approach on foot.

How to Purchase Tickets for Machu Picchu

Due to strict daily visitor limits, you must purchase tickets for Machu Picchu in advance. Here are the best ways to secure your entry:

Official Government Website: Visit machupicchu.gob.pe to purchase tickets directly from the Peruvian government. The site is primarily in Spanish, so have a translation tool ready if needed. As of 2024, general entry tickets to Machu Picchu cost between $45 and $60 USD, depending on ticket type (e.g., access to Huayna Picchu). For my visit, I bought my ticket on November 19th for a December 20th tour. It’s best to book at least a month in advance, especially during high season (April to October).
Authorized Travel Agencies: You can also buy tickets through authorized agencies such as PeruRail, Ticket Machu Picchu, and platforms like Viator or GetYourGuide. These services often offer bundled packages, though prices tend to be higher than the official government site.
In-Person: Tickets are available at official ticket offices in Cusco and Aguas Calientes, but be aware that they often sell out during peak seasons. To avoid disappointment, it’s best to purchase well in advance.

Make sure to bring your passport when purchasing tickets and when entering Machu Picchu. During high season, plan to book your tickets one to two months in advance to secure your spot.